Part I 1

1 What Is Changing in Public Sector Communication? 3

1.1 The Change: Identifying the Gaps with Citizens 3

1.1.1 What Is Changing? 3

1.1.1.1 Change in Everyday Practice 3

1.1.1.2 Answering the Most Important Question 4

1.1.1.3 Changing Values? 5

1.1.2 Changes in Individuals: Citizens, Stakeholders, Customers, and Partners 5

1.1.2.1 Changes in Citizens' Demands and Expectations 6

1.1.2.2 Citizen Communication Practices 6

1.1.2.3 Citizen Diversity 6

1.1.2.4 Changing Citizen Roles 7

1.1.3 The Traditional Gaps that Citizens Perceive When Assessing the Public Sector 7

1.1.3.1 Citizens Are from Venus, Public Authorities Are from Mars? 7

1.1.3.2 Gap 1: Speed: Bureaucracy versus Postbureaucracy 8

1.1.3.3 Gap 2: Privacy: Public versus Private Communication 8

1.1.3.4 Gap 3: Viewpoints: Process versus Answers 8

1.1.3.5 Gap 4: Context: Single Events versus General Attitude 9

1.1.3.6 Gap 5: Perceptions: Perception versus Performance 9

1.1.3.7 Gap 6: Roles: Obligations versus Rights 10

1.1.3.8 Gap 7: Media Use: Controlled versus Real Time 10

1.2 Framework for the Book 11

1.2.1 What Has Been Done on Public Sector Communication? 11

1.2.1.1 Earliest Works 11

1.2.1.2 Little Development despite the Relevance of the Topic 11

1.2.1.3 Nomenclature 12

1.2.1.4 Mapping Contributions from Different Fields to the Study of Public Sector Communication 12

1.2.2 The Three Pillars of this Book 16

1.2.2.1 The Intangible Nature of Public Sector Management 16

1.2.2.2 Knowledge for Practice, Practice for Knowledge 17

1.2.2.3 Considering Public Sector Communication from an International Perspective 17

1.2.3 Plan of the Book 17

References 18

2 What Is So Special about Public Sector Communication? 25

2.1 What Is the Public Sector? 25

2.1.1 Initial Basic De¿nitions 25

2.1.2 Is This Public or Private? 26

2.1.3 Scholarly Approaches to Establishing Criteria of Publicness 27

2.1.4 The Rings of Publicness 28

2.1.5 The Publicness Fan 28

2.2 De¿ning Public Sector Communication 30

2.2.1 Mapping Scholarly De¿nitions 30

2.2.2 Some Insights from Practice 32

2.2.3 Our De¿nition of Public Sector Communication 33

2.3 Looking at Public Sector Communication from the Publicness Fan 33

2.3.1 Different Communication? 33

2.3.2 How Public Is This and Hence How Should Intangibles and Communication be Managed? 35

2.3.2.1 Funding and Pröt 36

2.3.2.2 "Ownership" and "Employees" 37

2.3.2.3 Control and Accountability 38

2.3.2.4 Purpose and Values 39

References 40

3 Fragile Public Sector Organizations 45

3.1 A Brief History of Public Sector Organizations' Development 45

3.2 Global Trends in Public Sector Management: An Overview 46

3.3 Is There a Need for Intangible Assets? 47

3.3.1 From New Public Management to New Public Service 47

3.3.2 From Management to Public Value 48

3.4 The Fragility of Public Sector Organizations 50

3.4.1 Distrust 50

3.4.2 Services and Experiences 51

3.4.3 Bureaucracy 52

3.4.4 The Political Dimension 52

3.4.5 A Tactical Approach 53

3.5 Expectations as a Cause for Public Sector Fragility 54

3.5.1 How Citizen Expectations Are Changing 54

3.5.2 Expectations through Experiences 56

3.5.3 Unmet Expectations 56

References 57

4 Antifragile Communication: Closing the Gap through Intangible Assets 65

4.1 De¿ning "Intangible Asset" 65

4.1.1 What Is an Intangible Asset About? 65

4.1.2 Pinning Down Intangibility 66

4.1.3 The Features of an Intangible Asset 67

4.2 Types of Intangibles 67

4.2.1 Accounting Categorizations 67

4.2.2 Relationships and Perceptions as the Basis for Intangible Assets that Aim to Build Competitive Advantage 69

4.3 Why Are Intangibles Different in the Public Sector? 70

4.3.1 What Is the Value of Intangibility in the Public Sector? 72

4.3.2 Building Intangible Assets: Is It Possible? 73

4.4 Different Intangible Assets in the Public Sector 74

4.5 Avoiding Fragility through Intangible Assets 74

4.5.1 Antifragile Communication: Taking the Citizen Point of View 75

4.5.2 The Steps toward Antifragility 76

4.6 Intangible Assets in this Book 77

4.6.1 De¿nition of Intangible Asset in the Public Sector 77

4.6.2 Different Intangible Assets and the Relationships between Them 78

References 79

Part II 83

5 Satisfaction 85

5.1 What Is Satisfaction? 85

5.2 Experiences and Satisfaction 86

5.3 Why Should Public Organizations Care About Citizen Satisfaction? 87

5.4 Communication and Satisfaction 88

5.5 Measuring Citizen Satisfaction 89

5.5.1 The Purpose of Measuring 89

5.5.2 Do Measurement Tools from the Private Sector Suit the Public Sector? 91

5.6 Summary of Citizen Satisfaction 92

5.7 Case Study on Citizen Satisfaction 93

5.8 Route Guide to Building Citizen Satisfaction 96

References 97

6 Organizational Culture 101

6.1 Organizations' Invisible Cultures 101

6.2 De¿ning Organizational Culture 103

6.3 What Bene¿t Does Organizational Culture Bring? 104

6.4 Public Sector Organizational Culture 105

6.5 Subcultures 106

6.6 Communication and Public Sector Culture 107

6.6.1 Gaps that Public Sector Culture Can Fix 107

6.6.2 What to Measure in Practice? 110

6.7 Changing Organizational Culture 110

6.8 Criticism of Organizational Culture 112

6.9 Summary of Organizational Culture 112

6.10 Case Study on Organizational Culture 113

6.11 Route Guide to Changing Organizational Culture 116

References 117

7 Reputation 121

7.1 What Is the Logic behind Organizational Reputation? 121

7.2 How the Digital Environment Shapes Reputation 122

7.3 Organizational Reputation De¿ned 124

7.4 The Bene¿ts of a Good Reputation 125

7.5 Public Sector Organizations and Reputation 126

7.5.1 Reputation in a Context of Lower Competition 126

7.5.2 Neutral Reputation as Ideal for Public Sector Organizations 127

7.6 Measuring Public Sector Reputation 128

7.7 Two Examples of Measuring Reputation 131

7.8 Summary of Public Sector Reputation 133

7.9 Route Guide to Building Organizational Reputation 135

References 136

8 Legitimacy 139

8.1 Conferring Legitimacy upon Public Sector Organizations: What Does It Mean? 139

8.2 The Legitimacy Judgment: What Confers Organizational Legitimacy in the Public Sector? 141

8.2.1 Achievements versus Procedures 141

8.2.2 Typologies of Legitimacy 141

8.2.3 Moral Legitimacy 142

8.3 Resources Generated by Legitimacy 143

8.4 Communication and Legitimacy Building 144

8.4.1 Being Acknowledged as Legitimate 145

8.4.2 Legitimacy Building as Sense Making 145

8.5 How Legitimacy Typologies Help Legitimacy Builders 146

8.6 Building Legitimacy 147

8.7 Critical Issues and Further Research 149

8.8 Summary of Legitimacy 151

8.9 Case Study on Legitimacy 151

8.10 Route Guide to Building Legitimacy 154

References 155

9 Intellectual Capital 159

9.1 What Intellectual Capital Is About 159

9.1.1 De¿nition 159

9.1.2 What Has Been Done So Far on Intellectual Capital in the Public Sector? 160

9.2 Why is Intellectual Capital Needed? 161

9.3 What Resources Does Intellectual Capital Generate? Measuring Intellectual Capital 163

9.3.1 What Does Intellectual Capital Tell Us About? The Dimensions of IC 163

9.3.2 Measuring Intellectual Capital in the Public Sector 164

9.4 Communicating Intellectual Capital 166

9.4.1 Does Communication Play a Role in the Acknowledgement of Intellectual Capital? 166

9.4.2 Intellectual Capital Management and Communication Management 167

9.5 Critical Issues, Unanswered Questions, and Future Research 168

9.6 Summary of Intellectual Capital 169

9.7 Case Study on Intellectual Capital 170

9.8 Route Guide to Building Intellectual Capital 174

References 175

10 Engagement 179

10.1 What Citizen Engagement Is About 179

10.1.1 Looking at Engagement from the Citizen Side 179

10.1.2 Engagement from the Organization Side: The Role of Public Administrations in Engaging Citizens 180

10.2 Going Deeper into Public Sector Engagement 181

10.2.1 Governmental Efforts to Involve Citizens 182

10.2.2 Deepening Engagement: The Coproduction Perspective 182

10.3 Why Is Engagement Needed? 185

10.3.1 The Context for an Increasing Concern with and Practice of Citizen Engagement 185

10.3.2 What Speci¿c Gaps Does Engagement Help to Bridge? 185

10.4 Outcomes of Engagement: Calibrating Its Value as an Intangible Asset 186

10.4.1 A General Positive Assessment of the Impact of Engagement 186

10.4.2 More Mixed Evidence that Cannot Be Disregarded 187

10.4.3 Engagement Effects for the Organization: The Managerial Side 188

10.4.4 Bene¿t for Both Sides: The Cobene¿t of Coproduction 188

10.5 Building and Communicating Engagement 189

10.6 Summary of Engagement 190

10.7 Case Study on Public Sector Engagement 191

10.8 Route Guide to Building Engagement 196

References 197

11 Social Capital 201

11.1 Theory of Social...