Preface

Chapter 1 Introduction

What Is Motivation? Why Is It Important?

Motivational Science

Two Perennial Questions

What Causes Behavior?

Why Does Behavior Vary in Its Intensity?

Subject Matter

Internal Motives

External Events and Social Contexts

Motivation versus Influence

Expressions of Motivation

Behavior

Engagement

Psychophysiology

Brain Activations

Self-Report

Framework to Understand Motivation and Emotion

Ten Unifying Themes

Motivation and Emotion Benefit Adaptation and Functioning

Motivation and Emotion Direct Attention

Motivation and Emotion Are "Intervening Variables"

Motives Vary Over Time and Contribute into the Ongoing Stream of Behavior

Types of Motivations Exist

We Are Not Always Consciously Aware of the Motivational Basis of Our Behavior

Motivation Study Reveals What People Want

To Flourish, Motivation Needs Supportive Conditions

When Trying to Motivate Others, What Is Easy to Do Is Rarely What Works

There Is Nothing So Practical as a Good Theory

Summary

Chapter 2 Motivation and Emotion in Historical Perspective

Philosophical Origins of Motivational Concepts

Grand Theories

Will

Instinct

Drive

Rise of the Mini-Theories

Active Nature of the Person

Cognitive Revolution

Socially Relevant Questions

Contemporary Era

The 1990s Reemergence of Motivation Study

Brief History of Emotion Study

Conclusion

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Chapter 3 The Motivated and Emotional Brain

Motivation, Emotion, and Neuroscience

Day-to-Day Events Activate Specific Brain Structures

Activated Brain Structures Generate Specific Motivations and Emotions

Neural Basis of Motivation and Emotion

Cortical Brain

Subcortical Brain

Bidirectional Communication

Individual Brain Structures Involved in Motivation and Emotion

Subcortical Brain Structures

Cortical Brain Structures

Hormones

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Part I Needs

Chapter 4 Physiological Needs

Need

Three Types of Needs

Fundamentals of Regulation

Physiological Need

Psychological Drive

Homeostasis

Negative Feedback

Multiple Inputs/Multiple Outputs

Intraorganismic Mechanisms

Extraorganismic Mechanisms

Homeostatic Mechanism

Thirst

Physiological Regulation

Environmental Influences

Hunger

Short-Term Appetite

Long-Term Energy Balance

Environmental Influences

Self-Regulatory Influences

Weight Gain and Obesity

Comprehensive Model of Hunger

Sex

Physiological Regulation

Facial Metrics

Sexual Scripts

Sexual Orientation

Evolutionary Basis of Sexual Motivation

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Chapter 5 Extrinsic Motivation and Internalization

Extrinsic Motivation

Incentives and Consequences

Incentives

Reinforcers

Managing Behavior

Consequences

Hidden Costs of Reward

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic Motivation versus Extrinsic Motivation

Expected and Tangible Rewards

Implications

Benefits of Extrinsic Motivation

Cognitive Evaluation Theory

Two Examples of Controlling and Informational Events

Types of Extrinsic Motivation

External Regulation

Introjected Regulation

Identified Regulation

Integrated Regulation

Internalization and Integration

Motivating Others on Uninteresting Activities

Amotivation

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Chapter 6 Psychological Needs

Psychological Needs

Organismic Psychological Needs

Benefits of Need Satisfaction

Need Frustration

Autonomy

Supporting Autonomy

The Conundrum of Choice

Benefits from Autonomy Support

Giving and Receiving Autonomy Support

Competence

Optimal Challenge

Flow

Structure

Failure Tolerance

Relatedness

Involving Relatedness

Satisfying Relatedness

Supporting Relatedness

Communal and Exchange Relationships

Benefits from Relatedness Need Satisfaction

Putting it All Together: Relationships and Social Contexts that Support Psychological Need

Satisfaction

Engagement

What Makes for a Good Day?

Vitality

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Chapter 7 Implicit Motives

Implicit Motives

Acquired Needs

Social Needs

How Implicit Motives, as Acquired Psychological Needs, Motivate Behavior

Achievement

Origins of the Need for Achievement

Atkinson's Model

Achievement for the Future

Dynamics-of-Action Model

Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Achievement

Affiliation

Duality of Affiliation Motivation

Conditions That Involve the Affiliation and Intimacy Duality

Conditions That Satisfy the Affiliation Need

Power

Conditions That Involve and Satisfy the Need for Power

Goal Pursuit and Perspective Taking

Is the Implicit Power Motive Bad?

Leadership Motive Pattern

Compassionate Leadership Profile

Four Additional Social Needs

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Part II Cognitions

Chapter 8 Goal Setting and Goal Striving

Cognitive Springs to Action

Plans

Corrective Motivation

Discrepancy

Discrepancy, Emotions, and Feelings

Two Types of Discrepancy

Goal Setting

Goal-Performance Discrepancy

Difficult, Specific, and Congruent Goals Enhance Performance

Feedback

Criticisms

Long-Term Goal Setting

From Where Do Goals Come?

Goal Striving

Mental Simulations

Implementation Intentions

Goal Disengagement

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Chapter 9 Mindsets

Mindset

Mindset 1: Deliberative-Implemental

Deliberative Mindset

Implemental Mindset

Downstream Consequences of the Deliberative and Implemental Mindsets

Mindset 2: Promotion-Prevention

Promotion Mindset

Prevention Mindset

Different Definitions of Success and Failure

Different Goal-Striving Strategies

Ideal Self-Guides and Ought Self-Guides

Regulatory Fit Predicts Strength of Motivation and Well-Being

Mindset 3: Growth-Fixed

Fixed Mindset

Growth Mindset

Meaning of Effort

Origins of Fixed-Growth Mindsets

Different Fixed-Growth Mindsets Lead to Different Achievement Goals

Achievement Goals

Cognitive Dissonance

Dissonance-Arousing Situations

Motivational Processes Underlying Cognitive Dissonance

Self-Perception Theory

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Chapter 10 Personal Control Beliefs

Motivation to Exercise Personal Control

Two Kinds of Expectancy

Perceived Control: Self, Action, and Control

Coping with Failure

Self-Efficacy

Sources of Self-Efficacy

Self-Efficacy Effects on Behavior

Empowerment

Empowering People: Mastery Modeling Program

Mastery Beliefs

Ways of Coping

Mastery versus Helplessness

Learned Helplessness

Learning Helplessness

Application to Humans

Components

Helplessness Effects

Helplessness and Depression

Attributions and Explanatory Style

Reactance Theory

Expectancy-Value Model

Value

Value Interventions

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Chapter 11 The Self and Its Strivings

Two Views of Self

Self-as-Object

Self-as-Agent

The Problem with Self-Esteem

Self-Concept

Self-Schemas

Motivational Properties of Self-Schemas

Consistent Self

Self-Verification versus Self-Concept Change

Why People Self-Verify

Possible Selves

Identity

Roles

Connections to Social Groups

Situations Make Specific Identities Salient

Agency

Self as Action and Development from Within

True Self?

Self-Concordance

Intrinsic Goals and Extrinsic Goals

Self-Regulation

Forethought through Reflection

Developing More Competent Self-Regulation

Self-Control

Is the Capacity to Exert Self-Control Beneficial to a Successful Life?

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Part III Emotions

Chapter 12 Nature of Emotion: Six Perennial Questions

Six Perennial Questions

What is an Emotion?

Definition

Relation between Emotion and Motivation

What Causes an Emotion?

Two-Systems View

Chicken-and-Egg

What Ends an Emotion?

How Many Emotions are There?

Biological Perspective

Cognitive Perspective

Reconciliation of the Numbers Issue

What Good are the Emotions?

Coping Functions

Social Functions

Why We Have Emotions

Can We Control Our Emotions?

Emotion Regulation Strategies

What is the Difference Between Emotion and Mood?

Everyday Mood

Positive Affect

Summary

Readings for Further Study

Chapter 13 Aspects of Emotion

Biological Aspects of Emotion

James-Lange Theory

Contemporary Perspective